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The History of Knoxville, Tennessee, began with the establishment of James White's Fort on the Trans-Appalachian frontier in 1786.[1] The fort was chosen as the capital of the Southwest Territory in 1790, and the city, named for Secretary of War Henry Knox, was platted the following year.[1] Knoxville became the first capital of the State of Tennessee in 1796, and grew steadily during the early 19th century as a way station for westward-bound migrants and as a commercial center for nearby mountain communities.[1] The arrival of the railroad in 1850s led to a boom in the city's population and commercial activity.[1]
While a Southern city, Knoxville was home to a strong pro-Union element during the secession crisis of the early 1860s, and remained bitterly divided throughout the Civil War.[1] The city was occupied by Confederate forces until September 1863, when Union forces entered the city unopposed. Confederate forces laid siege to the city later that year, but retreated after failing to breach the city's fortifications during the Battle of Fort Sanders.[1]
Following the war, business leaders, many from the North, established major iron and textile industries in Knoxville. As a nexus between rural towns in Southern Appalachia and the nation's great manufacturing centers, Knoxville grew to become the third-largest wholesaling center in the South.[1] Tennessee marble, extracted from quarries on the city's periphery, was used in the construction of numerous monumental buildings across the country, earning Knoxville the nickname, "The Marble City."[2]
Knoxville's economy slowed in the early 1900s. Political factioning hampered revitalization efforts throughout much of the 20th century, though the creation of federal entities such as the Tennessee Valley Authority in the 1930s and the ten-fold expansion of the University of Tennessee helped keep the economy stable. Beginning in the late 1960s, a city council more open to change, along with economic diversification, urban renewal, and the hosting of the 1982 World's Fair, helped the city revitalize to some extent.[1]
Late-Woodland period burial mound on the University of Tennessee campus
The first humans to form substantial settlements in what is now Knoxville arrived during the Woodland period (c. 1000 B.C. – 1000 A.D).[3] Knoxville's two most prominent prehistoric structures are Late Woodland period burial mounds, one located along Cherokee Boulevard in Sequoyah Hills, and the other located along Joe Johnson Drive on the U.T. campus.[4] Substantial Mississippian period (c. 1100–1600 A.D.) village sites have been found at Post Oak Island (along the river near the Knox-Blount line),[5] and at Bussell Island (near Lenoir City).[6]
The Spanish expedition of Hernando de Soto is believed to have traveled down the French Broad Valley and visited the Bussell Island village in 1540 en route to the Mississippi River.[7][8] A follow-up expedition led by Juan Pardo may have visited village sites in the Little Tennessee Valley in 1567. The records of these two expeditions suggest the area was part of a Muskogean chiefdom known as Chiaha, which was subject to the Coosa chiefdom further to the south.[9]
By the 18th century, the Cherokee had become the dominant tribe in the East Tennessee region, although they were consistently at war with the Creeks and Shawnee.[10][11] The Cherokee people called the Knoxville area kuwanda'talun'yi, which means "Mulberry Place."[12] Most Cherokee habitation in the area was concentrated in the Overhill settlements along the Little Tennessee River, southwest of Knoxville.
Early exploration and late-18th century politics[edit]
By the early 1700s, traders from South Carolina were visiting the Overhill towns regularly, and following the discovery of Cumberland Gap in 1748, long hunters from Virginia began pouring into the Tennessee Valley. At the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754, the Cherokee supported the British, and the British in return constructed Fort Loudoun to protect the Overhill towns from the French and their allies.[13]:1 After a falling out, however, the Cherokee attacked the fort and killed its occupants in 1760. A peace expedition to the Overhill towns led by Henry Timberlake passed along the river through what is now Knoxville in December 1761.[14]
The Cherokee supported the British during the American Revolution, and after the war, North Carolina, which considered the Tennessee Valley part of its territory, deemed Cherokee claims to the region void.[13]:2 North Carolina made plans to cede its Trans-Appalachian territory to the federal government, but decided to open up the lands to settlement first. In 1783, land speculator William Blount and his brother, John Gray Blount, convinced North Carolina to pass a law offering lands in the Tennessee Valley for sale.[15] Later that year, an expedition consisting of James White (1747–1820), James Connor, Robert Love, and Francis Alexander Ramsey, explored the Upper Tennessee Valley, and discovered the future site of Knoxville.[15] Taking advantage of Blount's land-grab act, White took out a claim for the site shortly afterward.[15]
Early Knoxville[edit]White's Fort[edit]
In 1786, White moved to the future site of Knoxville, where he and fellow explorer James Connor built what became known as White's Fort.[15] The site straddled a hill that was bounded by the river on the south, creeks (First Creek and Second Creek) on the east and west, and a swampy declivity on the north. The fort, which originally stood along modern State Street, consisted of four heavily timbered cabins connected by an 8-foot (2.4 m) palisade, enclosing one-quarter acre of ground.[16]:374 White also erected a mill for grinding grain on nearby First Creek.[16]:375
White's Fort represented the western extreme of the so-called State of Franklin, which Tennessee settlers organized in 1784 after North Carolina reneged on its plans to cede its western territory to the federal government.[13]:3 James White supported the State of Franklin, and served as its Speaker of the Senate in 1786. The federal government never recognized the State of Franklin, however, and by 1789, its supporters once again pledged allegiance to North Carolina.[13]:4
In 1789, White, William Blount, and former State of Franklin leader John Sevier, now members of the North Carolina state legislature, helped convince the state to ratify the United States Constitution.[13]:4 Following ratification, North Carolina ceded control of its Tennessee territory to the federal government.[13]:4-5 In May 1790, the United States created the Southwest Territory, which included Tennessee, and President George Washington appointed Blount the territory's governor.[13]:4-5
Establishment of Knoxville[edit]Map showing Charles McClung's 1791 plat and 1795 extension of Knoxville
Blount immediately moved to White's Fort (chosen for its central location) to begin resolving land disputes between the Cherokee and white settlers in the region.[13]:5-6 In the Summer of 1791, he met with forty-one Cherokee chiefs at the mouth of First Creek to negotiate the Treaty of Holston, which was signed on July 2 of that year.[13]:5-6 The treaty moved the boundary of Cherokee lands westward to the Clinch River and southwestward to the Little Tennessee River.[13]:5-6
While Blount initially sought to place the territorial capital at the confluence of the Clinch and Tennessee rivers (near modern Kingston), where he had land claims, he was unable to convince the Cherokee to completely relinquish this area, and thus settled on White's Fort as the capital.[13]:6-7 James White set aside land for a new town, which initially consisted of the area now bounded by Church Avenue, Walnut Street, First Creek, and the river, in what is now Downtown Knoxville.[17] White's son-in-law, Charles McClung, surveyed the land and divided it into 64 half-acre lots.[15] Lots were set aside for a church and cemetery, a courthouse, a jail, and a college.[15]
On October 3, 1791, a lottery was held for those wishing to purchase lots in the new city, which was named "Knoxville" in honor of Blount's superior, Secretary of War Henry Knox.[15] Along with Blount and McClung, those who purchased lots in the city included merchants Hugh Dunlap, Thomas Humes, and Nathaniel and Samuel Cowan, newspaper publisher George Roulstone, the Reverend Samuel Carrick, frontiersman John Adair (who had built a fort just to the north in what is now Fountain City), and tavern keeper John Chisholm.[15]
Knoxville in the 1790s[edit]
Howard Pyle's depiction of a scout warning Knoxvillians of the approach of a hostile Cherokee (Chickamauga) force in 1793
Following the sale of lots, Knoxville's leaders set about constructing a courthouse and jail. A garrison of federal soldiers, under the command of David Henley, erected a blockhouse in Knoxville in 1792.[15] The Cowan brothers, Nathaniel and Samuel, opened the city's first general store in August 1792, and John Chisholm's tavern was in operation by December 1792.[15] The city's first newspaper, the Knoxville Gazette, was established by George Roulstone in November 1791.[15] In 1794, Blount College, the forerunner of the University of Tennessee, was chartered, with Samuel Carrick as its first president.[15] Carrick also established the city's first church, the First Presbyterian Church, though a building wasn't constructed until the 1800s.[15]Lloyd Branson's The Blockhouse at Knoxville, Tennessee, showing the federal blockhouse built in 1792
In many ways, early Knoxville was a typical rowdy late-18th century frontier village.[1] A detached group of Cherokee, known as the Chickamaugas, refused to recognize the Holston treaty, and remained a constant threat. In September 1793, a large force of Chickamaugas and Creeks marched on Knoxville, and massacred the inhabitants of Cavet's Station (near modern Bearden) before dispersing.[13]:11 Outlaws roamed the city's periphery, among them the Harpe Brothers, who murdered at least one settler in 1797 before fleeing to Kentucky.[13]:12 Abishai Thomas, an associate of Blount who visited Knoxville in 1794, noted that the city was full of taverns and tippling houses, and that the blockhouse's jail was overcrowded with criminals.[13]:11-2

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